The war to end all wars (1914-1918)
The causes of the war
Long term causes of the war:
- the growth of Germany frightened Britain, because this meant that Germany could afford to spend money on its army and navy.
- German industrials and the Kaiser Wilhelm II wanted to gain an overseas empire, because the industrials wanted markets to sell their goods into and the Kaiser was jealous of Britain and France.
- The growth of the German army worried Britain, France and Russia. Britain’s position as a great sea power was threatened by the Germans.
- In 1879 Austria-Hungary and Germany formed the Dual Alliance and later it became a Triple Alliance in1882 when Italy joined
In 1892 France and Russia allied each other. In 1904 the Entente Cordial between Britain and France was signed, and in 1907 it became a Triple Alliance when Russia and Britain became allies. - Problem in the Austrian Empire. Austria tried to keep control in the Balkans. The independence of these countries worried Austria. They were afraid that the independence movement would spread to Slavs in their Empire. In 1908 Austria took over Bosnia, this angered the Slavs inside the Empire and secret societies were formed.
Short term causes:
- the assassin of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28th June in Sarajevo.
- Unconditional support of Germany for Austria-Hungary
- Austria sent Ultimatum to Serbia
- Russia mobilised their army to protect Serbia, but this threatened Germany.
- Germany declared war on Russia and invaded Belgium to attack France.
- Britain declared war on Germany, because they had a treaty with Belgium to protect it and the British also wanted to stop German power
The western Front, 1914-1917
In the first months of 1914 there was a great movement of soldiers. In Belgium and France the Schlieffen Plan was put into operation, but it failed because the Belgium army was fighting bravely and Britain had sent a small force (British Expeditionary Force) and in the east Russia attacked Germany but this was also soon ground to halt. In late August 1914 the Germans were halted by the French army north of Paris at the Battle of Marne. At each side concentrated upon defence a system of trenches was built. Those were protected by barbed wire fences and sand bags. Some had concrete reinforcements. The soldiers had machine guns and rifles. There was no movement. The weapons who were used were:
- machine guns, were small and manoeuvrable, needed a crew of two or three soldiers, shoot hundreds of bullets each minute, able to kill a soldier on 2km
- heavy guns, fired at the enemy trenches before an attack to destroy defences and to weaken morale
- gas, used at Ypres in 1915 (first time), soldiers came into shock, two types: chlorine and mustard gas
- tanks, in 1916 first used by British army, first it was a surprise, but there were unreliable and too few of them to make a great impact.
- Balloons and aeroplanes, to provide information about enemy and to bomb them
In Britain, France, Germany, Russia and USA the whole country was involved in the war. Men and women worked in factories. Men volunteered or were conscripted to fight. Women served as nurses, in factories and farms. Most countries food was rationed to overcome shortages. Battle of the Somme, 1916 In 1916 British and French generals decided to attack the Germans north of the River Somme in France. They wanted to make a breakthrough into German territory and to help the French army at Verdun because it would help them by diverting German soldiers. First the British shelled the Germans with big guns for a whole week. Then at 1st July 1916, the British attacked German trenches. 60,000 men were killed or wounded by the Germans. Role of the generals, especially sir Douglas Haig The generals who were responsible for the launched attack of 1915-1917 came in for a great deal of criticism. They weren’t able to make a breakthrough till 1918. Sir Douglas Haig who was Commander-in-Chief of the British force (1915-1918) was responsible for the launched attacks, but he was convinces that victory would come. Haig was sure that the artillery bombardment would have destroyed German defences and broken the barbed wires. The soldiers were ordered to walk (they weren’t even able to run). In the autumn of 1917, Haig ordered an attack north of Ypres (Passchndaele), this was called the third battle of Ypres. Hundreds of thousands again lost there lives, many swallowed by the deep mud in that part of the battlefields. Haig was often out of touch with the conditions at the Front because his headquarters were miles away from the fighting and communications were poor. After the Third Battle of Ypres Lloyd George reduces Haig’s fighting strength to save casualties. Haig wasn’t in overall command, because the French generals always commanded the allied armies. Haig didn’t receive always the right information. Once he attacked with tanks the Germans but he hadn’t seen that the area was too marshy for those tanks. The Gallipoli Plan The stalemate on the Western Front forced both sides to consider alternative ways to break the deadlock. Turkey had joined the war on German’s side. Winston Churchill a politician had a plan to attack the Turks at Gallipoli, if successful this would allow the allies to attack the Germany from the South East. In April 1915 Allied soldiers were landed on the beaches near Gallipoli. The landing was successful but the troops were unable to break out from the beaches, because the Turkish army was well prepared. 200,000 casualties were suffered before the decision was made to evacuate them in December 1915.
The war at sea
In May 1916 the British and German fleets had clashed at Jutland. Each side suffered losses. The German fleet went back to her base and so did the British. It was a little victory of the British because if the German had made a breakthrough it could have done enormous damage on Britain’s supply of food and materials.
In 1915 German declared the Western Approaches to the British Isles a war zone: this meant that every ship of any country were liable to sunk. After the sinking of Lusitania (1915) the USA warned the Germany to abandon unrestricted submarine warfare. At the same time the British navy was able to impose an almost totally effective blockade of German ports. This let to a food shortage in Germany.
In 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. In April German U-boats lots of boats were sunk and Britain had just 6 weeks food left, but this warfare also contributed to the involvement of the USA in the War.
Changing circumstances in 1917 and 1918
Russia
There was a revolution in Russia (1917) which led the Russians to make a peace treaty with Germany. The Tsar Nicolas was forced to abdicate. The war had a great influence on his abdication. He was replaced by a liberal government, they decided to carry on fighting against the Germans. 6 months later they were overthrown by the Communists led by Lenin. In March 1918 the Communists signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. This gave Germany two advantages:
- Germany gained some land, so more food could be provided
- The German soldiers who had been fighting on the Eastern Front could be used in the West.
Germany was able to launch a master attack. This was first successful, but after 10 days Germans could not supply their advancing soldiers who began to stop to find food. The attack was repeated and even Paris was threatened, but the German were held and the Americans began to arrive.
USA
In 1917, the USA joined the war at the side of the Allies. For many years the USA wanted to keep out of European affairs. They wanted to stay in isolation, but the USA had been supplying the Allies with materials for the war effort. Much was transported by US ships, and in 1915 the Lusitania was sunk by a German submarine. This led to a change in the opinions of the Americans because the German submarine campaign had a big affect on trade. In April 1917 the Congress declared war on Germany. It took many months before the Americans had reached Europe. They came with 200,000 each months and this were fresh and idealistic men in the peak of condition which made a great impact upon the course of the War.
Why did Germany lose the War?
In August 1918 General Ludendorff told the Kaiser that the war was lost. Germany wasn’t defeated but in 1918 Germany asked for an armistice (a peace treaty). It happened on 11th November 1918. Germany wasn’t able to keep the war effort going. They had gained land from Russia and they had made breakthroughs on the Western Front, but the German ports were blocked and the providing of food was stopped. The Politicians were afraid for a revolution. The introduce of moderns weapons by the allies led to a push back of the Germans.
How did the War affect each county?
Britain
Britain was bankrupted by the War and was heavily in debt to the USA. The Government reduced the armed forces: ships became scrap, aeroplanes were sold to flying clubs and the army was reduced, but a lot of men became unemployed. In 1919 the league of Nations was formed and everyone believed that this would prevent future wars. In 1918 all men and also women were allowed to vote.
France
The French wanted to punish the Germany for the War and the French Government made heavy claims on Germany at the Treaty of Versailles. They also wanted to weaken Germany in order to protect France from any future attack. Later the Government built a system of forts along the border of Germany (Maginot Line).
Germany
In 1919 a liberal government was set up (Weimar Government). There were lots of unemployed soldiers and food was scarce. In 1919 there was a revolution in Berlin led by the Communists but this was put down. This was the start of attempted revolutions and unrest. The War had also a great impact of the thoughts of people: the people felt cheated and many wanted revenge for the way Germany had been treated in the peace treaty. This was one of the reasons why Hitler became very popular in the 1930s.
Italy
Italy had changed side during the War. They ended up at the winning side, but wasn’t rewarded in the Treaty of Versailles, although she became a member of the League of Nations. Together with unemployment and the fear of Communism, led to Mussolini coming in power in Italy. He wanted to make Italy a great power with an Empire.
Russia
From October 1917 Russia was a Communist country known as USSR. They had broken the alliance with Britain and France and this led to invasions of the British and French who wanted to fight against the Communists and try to put the Tsar back on the throne. Russia wasn’t allowed to join the League of Nations. The Communists never forgave them.
USA
Most Americans didn’t want their country involved in any European war, they believed that the loss of American lives in the War was a waste. After the War the USA wished to go back to its old policy of isolation, so the USA refused to join the League of Nations. But the French and British had a great debt by the USA. In 1925, the USA made loans to Germany so that Germany was able to pay reparations to Britain and France, who could then pay off their debts to the USA, so the USA had more influence over the European countries than before. How did the First World War affect international relations? - League of Nations was formed, was formed to keep the peace by allowing countries to talk and sort out their problems without fighting. - Changes to the balance of power, in Europe the Austrian Empire was broken up and Germany was weakened and new countries were created or gained their independence. - In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire was broken up. The Turks had fought with Germany and paid the price for this in 1919. Much of the Turkish Empire was now controlled by Britain and France. - Triple alliance of Austria, Germany and Italy was broken. The Treaty of Versailles would prevent any future alliance between Austria and Germany. Triple Entente was also broken. - USA had shown that it was prepared to join in European affairs if the situation demanded it. The USA had helped the allies to win the war and so they had an important part in the negotiations of the peace treaties, but after it they turned back into their policy of isolationism.
Peace making 1919-1920
The aims of the peace makers
Lloyd George, he wanted to make Germany pay for the war. He accepted the Fourteen Points of Wilson, but he also aimed for a harsh peace settlement to satisfy the British.
Clemenceau, wanted to punish and to weaken Germany. He wanted to protect France in the future by ensuring that Germany was kept weak. He accepted also the Fourteen Point of Wilson, and he also aimed a harsh peace settlement to satisfy the French.
Wilson, went to Paris to represent 14 points , which was to form the basis of the peace settlement and the prevention of further wars.
Italy and Japan were there as part of the victorious Allied delegation, but didn’t have a big say.
The defeated countries (Germany, Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Turkey) were all there but they were given very little say in the debates and they were there only to sign the treaties.
The terms of the treaties
Treaty of ST Germain (September 1919)
Austria paid reparations. Austrian army limited to 30,000 soldiers. Bohemia and Moravia given to the new state of Czechoslovakia. Bosnia and Herzegovina went to Yugoslavia. Galicia was given to Poland. South Tyrol and Istria went to Italy.
Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919)
Bulgaria paid reparations. Bulgarian army limited to 20,000. Bulgaria lost land to Yugoslavia, and lost Western Thrace which went to Greece.
Treaty of Trianon (June 1920)
Hungary paid reparations. Army limited to 35,000. Handed over war criminals. Transylvania given to Romania, Rutheria and Slovakia to Czechoslovakia; Croatia and Slovenia to Yugoslavia.
Treaty of Sevres (August 1920)
Turkey lost Eastern Thrace and Smyrna to Greece. This was disputed and led to a war. In 1922 the Treaty of Laussanne returned Smyrna to Turkey. Turkey gave up all claims to territory in the Middle East.
Treaty of Versailles (June 1919)
Germany had to accept this treaty because the Allies still blockaded the ports and 31 divisions of Allied Soldiers were ready to invade Germany. This is what was the Treaty of Versailles:
- German colonies in South East and West Africa, and in the Far East, the League of the Nations would look after those colonies until they were ready to rule themselves.
- The German navy was to be limited to 6 small battleships, 6 cruisers and 12 destroyers. No submarines allowed and no air force. The army was limited to 100,000 soldiers. Conscriptions wasn’t allowed and tanks and heavy guns were banned.
- A Reparations Commission was set up to decide the amount. L 6,600 millions plus interest had to be paid. Much of this was to be paid in goods and the German merchant fleet was handed over to the Allies.
The consequences of Versailles
- the loss of German colonies helped Germany, because now she could concentrate on rebuilding her position in Europe.
- The new countries created around Germany as a safeguard weren’t able to resist Germany once she became strong again. The Germans wanted to take back the land taken away at the Versailles.
- German soldiers and sailors deeply resented the treatment given out at Versailles. The found ways to beat the restrictions. Germany had a small but well trained and professional army. Small, fast and powerful ships were built and it was also difficult to check on the number of size of tanks and guns.
- The reparations payment were unrealistic. They were too high even for a strong economy. Germany lent money from USA to pay the reparations and also the payments were reduced.
The Treaty of Versailles helped to bring the Second World War. The harshness of the War Guilt Clause and the reparations demands made it easier for Hitler to gain power in Germany.
In 1892 France and Russia allied each other. In 1904 the Entente Cordial between Britain and France was signed, and in 1907 it became a Triple Alliance when Russia and Britain became allies. - Problem in the Austrian Empire. Austria tried to keep control in the Balkans. The independence of these countries worried Austria. They were afraid that the independence movement would spread to Slavs in their Empire. In 1908 Austria took over Bosnia, this angered the Slavs inside the Empire and secret societies were formed.
In Britain, France, Germany, Russia and USA the whole country was involved in the war. Men and women worked in factories. Men volunteered or were conscripted to fight. Women served as nurses, in factories and farms. Most countries food was rationed to overcome shortages. Battle of the Somme, 1916 In 1916 British and French generals decided to attack the Germans north of the River Somme in France. They wanted to make a breakthrough into German territory and to help the French army at Verdun because it would help them by diverting German soldiers. First the British shelled the Germans with big guns for a whole week. Then at 1st July 1916, the British attacked German trenches. 60,000 men were killed or wounded by the Germans. Role of the generals, especially sir Douglas Haig The generals who were responsible for the launched attack of 1915-1917 came in for a great deal of criticism. They weren’t able to make a breakthrough till 1918. Sir Douglas Haig who was Commander-in-Chief of the British force (1915-1918) was responsible for the launched attacks, but he was convinces that victory would come. Haig was sure that the artillery bombardment would have destroyed German defences and broken the barbed wires. The soldiers were ordered to walk (they weren’t even able to run). In the autumn of 1917, Haig ordered an attack north of Ypres (Passchndaele), this was called the third battle of Ypres. Hundreds of thousands again lost there lives, many swallowed by the deep mud in that part of the battlefields. Haig was often out of touch with the conditions at the Front because his headquarters were miles away from the fighting and communications were poor. After the Third Battle of Ypres Lloyd George reduces Haig’s fighting strength to save casualties. Haig wasn’t in overall command, because the French generals always commanded the allied armies. Haig didn’t receive always the right information. Once he attacked with tanks the Germans but he hadn’t seen that the area was too marshy for those tanks. The Gallipoli Plan The stalemate on the Western Front forced both sides to consider alternative ways to break the deadlock. Turkey had joined the war on German’s side. Winston Churchill a politician had a plan to attack the Turks at Gallipoli, if successful this would allow the allies to attack the Germany from the South East. In April 1915 Allied soldiers were landed on the beaches near Gallipoli. The landing was successful but the troops were unable to break out from the beaches, because the Turkish army was well prepared. 200,000 casualties were suffered before the decision was made to evacuate them in December 1915.
Most Americans didn’t want their country involved in any European war, they believed that the loss of American lives in the War was a waste. After the War the USA wished to go back to its old policy of isolation, so the USA refused to join the League of Nations. But the French and British had a great debt by the USA. In 1925, the USA made loans to Germany so that Germany was able to pay reparations to Britain and France, who could then pay off their debts to the USA, so the USA had more influence over the European countries than before. How did the First World War affect international relations? - League of Nations was formed, was formed to keep the peace by allowing countries to talk and sort out their problems without fighting. - Changes to the balance of power, in Europe the Austrian Empire was broken up and Germany was weakened and new countries were created or gained their independence. - In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire was broken up. The Turks had fought with Germany and paid the price for this in 1919. Much of the Turkish Empire was now controlled by Britain and France. - Triple alliance of Austria, Germany and Italy was broken. The Treaty of Versailles would prevent any future alliance between Austria and Germany. Triple Entente was also broken. - USA had shown that it was prepared to join in European affairs if the situation demanded it. The USA had helped the allies to win the war and so they had an important part in the negotiations of the peace treaties, but after it they turned back into their policy of isolationism.
REACTIES
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